One reason for this gap may be that most systems for categorizing coping behavior have been developed to apply to a wide range of stressors, which may not always fit well with individuals’ descriptions of how they cope with a particular stressor (for an overview, see Skinner, Edge, Altman, & Sherwood, 2003). Little published research on coping with heterosexism has attempted to compare heterosexism with similar types of stigma, or to relate findings from qualitative studies to theoretical models of stigma, emotion regulation or coping. Heterosexism, like infertility stigma and other types of stigma that are often reinforced by family members, may therefore increase distance in relationships with key members of an individual’s familial social support network and create further isolation ( LaSala, 1998 Remennick, 2000). Thus, while victims of racism can sometimes turn to family members for anti-racist support, sexual minorities often lack such support. Such feelings may be particularly relevant to coping with heterosexism, since, unlike racism and many other types of stigma, heterosexism is often overtly reinforced by the stigmatized person’s own family members ( D'Augelli & Hershberger, 1993 Savin-Williams, 1989). Other studies have focused on the experiential aspects of facing heterosexism, such as feelings of alienation or isolation, and states of self-reflection or inner conflict ( Flowers & Buston, 2001). However, additional dimensions of coping have also emerged, such as seeking support or challenging heterosexist assumptions ( Wilson & Miller, 2002).
when or how to come out) have continued to be important themes ( Adams, Cahill, & Ackerlind, 2005 Wilson & Miller, 2002). More recent qualitative studies have begun to describe the range of strategies used by individuals to cope with heterosexism in a variety of contexts. In his seminal text on stigma, Goffman (1963) also emphasized choices around disclosure by developing the concepts of “passing,” or hiding a stigmatized characteristic, and “covering,” or minimizing its outward signs. Until recently, most research related to coping with heterosexism has focused on how gays and lesbians decide whether to disclose their sexual identity (e.g., Chung, 2001 D'Augelli & Hershberger, 1993). However, little is known about the actual strategies that gay and bisexual youth use to cope with stigmatization and heterosexism.
In fact, ‘coping resources’ are mentioned throughout the literature on sexual minority youth, and variations in coping styles are often considered an important factor in health outcomes within this population ( Hunter, 1999 Perrin et al., 2004 Safren & Heimberg, 1999). Social workers and counselors are often advised to assess personal resources for coping with heterosexism when evaluating the needs of lesbian and gay youth and developing appropriate case management plans ( Ryan & Futterman, 1998). Recent research has revealed elevated levels of social anxiety in sexual minority adolescents ( Safren & Pantalone, 2006), as well as associations between social anxiety and increased sexual risk behavior in this population ( Hart & Heimberg, 2005). Few researchers have examined the emotional consequences of day-to-day encounters with heterosexism, but many have noted the challenge of maintaining a positive sense of self in the face of chronic negative feedback based in heterosexist attitudes (e.g., Dean et al., 2000 Williamson, 2000). The experience of being stigmatized is at the root of a range of psychosocial health problems faced by sexual minority adolescents (American Academy of Pediatrics, 1993 Rotheram-Borus & Fernandez, 1995), including increased depression, suicidality, and other mental health disorders ( Meyer, 2003).
One of the most daunting stressors gay and bisexual youth face is heterosexism, the ideological system that denies, denigrates, and stigmatizes any non-heterosexual form of behavior, identity, relationship, or community ( Herek, 1990). To assist youth to cope successfully and thrive, service providers need a thorough understanding of the challenges they face, how they cope with them, and which coping strategies or combinations of strategies may be best suited to a particular stressor or situation. Gay and bisexual youth face an array of unique challenges in addition to many of the developmental stressors facing heterosexual adolescents.